How Mountains Are Formed :: Informative Essays

How Are Mountains Formed?Mountains ar formed over long periods of time by forces of the earth. Mountains just don&8217t await in any place. Most are formed when plates, or huge pieces of the human contour&8217s crust, pull and push against each other. Greatmountain ranges are formed by the movement of tectonic plates. Convectioncurrents deep in the mantle of the earth, begins to soundly up towards thesurface. As the pressure increases, it sets the crustal plates in motion.There are different kinds of mountains - Volcanic, Folded, Fault-block, andDome mountains. Volcanic mountains are formed when magma comes upthrough cracks in the acres&8217s crust and explodes out lava and ash. TheHawaiian volcanoes, Mt. Hood, Mt. Etna, Vesuvius, and Mt. Saint Helens areexamples of volcanic mountains. Rocks are hard but in time they can bend orfold producing Folded mountains. The Alps formed as the Eurasian platepushed against the African plate. Other examples of folded mountains are theRock ies, Himalayas, Appalayas, and the Andes. Fault-block mountains areformed when one plate pushes or pulls outside(a) from another plate. In the Earth,hot currents of magma or melted throw off whitethorn well up and crack the weakenedcrust above. As the crust cracks, blocks of rock rise or fall formingFault-block mountains. Examples of these mountains are the Sierra Nevada incalcium and the Grand Tetons in Wyoming. Dome mountains are formedby the same kind of molten rock that forms Volcanic mountains. As magmacomes up in a crack in the Earth&8217s crust, it does not come to the surface, butthe molten rock pushes the ground up into a dome. Examples are Yosemite&8217s half(a) Dome, the Adirondacks in New York, and the Black Hills in SouthDakota.Some mountains started at the bottom of the sea.How Mountains Are Formed Informative Essays How Are Mountains Formed?Mountains are formed over long periods of time by forces of the earth. Mountains just don&8217t appear in any place. Most ar e formed when plates, or huge pieces of the Earth&8217s crust, pull and push against each other. Greatmountain ranges are formed by the movement of tectonic plates. Convectioncurrents deep in the mantle of the earth, begins to well up towards thesurface. As the pressure increases, it sets the crustal plates in motion.There are different kinds of mountains - Volcanic, Folded, Fault-block, andDome mountains. Volcanic mountains are formed when magma comes upthrough cracks in the Earth&8217s crust and explodes out lava and ash. TheHawaiian volcanoes, Mt. Hood, Mt. Etna, Vesuvius, and Mt. Saint Helens areexamples of volcanic mountains. Rocks are hard but in time they can bend orfold producing Folded mountains. The Alps formed as the Eurasian platepushed against the African plate. Other examples of folded mountains are theRockies, Himalayas, Appalayas, and the Andes. Fault-block mountains areformed when one plate pushes or pulls away from another plate. In the Earth,hot currents of magma or molten rock may well up and crack the weakenedcrust above. As the crust cracks, blocks of rock rise or fall formingFault-block mountains. Examples of these mountains are the Sierra Nevada inCalifornia and the Grand Tetons in Wyoming. Dome mountains are formedby the same kind of molten rock that forms Volcanic mountains. As magmacomes up in a crack in the Earth&8217s crust, it does not come to the surface, butthe molten rock pushes the ground up into a dome. Examples are Yosemite&8217sHalf Dome, the Adirondacks in New York, and the Black Hills in SouthDakota.Some mountains started at the bottom of the sea.

Electric Cars and Air Pollution Essay -- Environment Environmental Tec

The goal of galvanising vehicles is to reduce air discharges associated with typical internal combustion vehicles (ICVs), thereby decreasing the emission of environmentally damaging products such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Since electric vehicles run on electricity generated from batteries and do not emit air pollutants, these vehicles atomic human activity 18 termed zero emission vehicles (ZEV). CARB mandated that ZEVs be 2% of the total automotive sales by 1998 and 10% by 2003. The push for ZEVs raises serious concerns about the environmental impacts of ZEVs due(p) to their production and use. Is CARBs push for ZEVs premature given the present state of battery technology? Will the production of ZEVs lead to unforeseen environmental dying? Or atomic number 18 ZEVs the answer to our air pollution woes? This paper analyzes the feasibility of electric cars and the impacts of their production on the environment.The components of air pollution have been attributed to a number of serious health and environmental consequences. For example, air pollution can lead to eye, nose and throat irritation, as well as complications in breathing. Some chemicals in air pollution, such as benzene, cause cancer while other chemicals may cause birth defects, brain and nerve damage and long-term hurt to the lungs and breathing passages. Not only does air pollution create distinct medical problems, it also creates environmental problems as well. Carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxide are three examples of gases released into the atmosphere each year as a result of the combustion processes. Billions of pounds of pollutants are released each year from power plants and motor vehicles. These pollutants are make serious problems for the environment. Motor... ...)10-15 Rahman, S. de Castro, Arnulfo. 1995. Environmental Impacts of Electricity Generation A Global Perspective. IEEE Transaction on Energy Conversion. 10(2) 307-312 Renner, R. 1996. Life-cycle ana lysis stirs continued debate on impact of electric cars. Environmental Science and Technology. 30(1)17A-18A Roque, J. A. 1995. Electric vehicle manufacturing in Southern California local versus regional environmental hazards. Environment and Planning A. 27(6) 907-932 Savage, J. A. 1994. The Road Warriors Utilities and Automakers Square impinge on on Alternative Fuel Vehicles. Business and Society Review. 886-8 Tucker, M. 1995. The Shocking State of Electric Car Technology. Business and Society Review. 9344-47 http//www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/peg_caa/pegcaa04.html http//www.epa.gov/OMSWWW/11-vehs.htm http//www.epa.gov/oar/caa/contents.html

Creon As The Tragic Hero Of Antigone by Sophocles Essay -- Greek Sopho

Creon As The Tragic Hero Of Antigone by SophoclesGreek tragedy would not be complete with out a tragic hero. Sophocles wrote Antigone with a specific character in mind for this part. Based on Aristotles definition, Creon is the tragic hero of Antigone.Creon fits Aristotles tragic hero traits as a significant person who is faced with difficult decisivenesss. Creon is significant because he is king. This makes him both renowned and prosperous. Creon is not completely good nor completely bad he is someplace in-between, as humans are. The audience can relate to this and they admire his qualities of intelligence in political affairs. They can also relate to his ability to make disenfranchised decisions with apparent ease. These ticklish decisions are what lead Creon to fit Aristotles definition of a tragic hero. Creon faces decisions that lead to a no-win situation, with confidence, and he makes the best decision he can, based on his beliefs. He believes that Polyneices should not be b uried because he was a traitor to his family. This decision affected Antigone greatly, and Creon knew that the decision would be hard on some people. Family and burials are very important in society, and Creon is asking Antigone to not consider them, to only consider that Polyneices was a traitor to his home city. Creon is wherefore faced with the knowledge that Antigone went against his will and law, and buried her brother. Again, Creon is faced with a hard decision. He must choose to kill his own family memb...

The Anatomy of Abuse Essay -- essays research papers

The Anatomy of AbuseWhile this paper cannot be a definitive guide to the personality of the abuser, the victims relationship with the abuser and societies part in encouraging gender bias, I hope it impart add to the pool of knowledge. It is my hope that, at least in a small way, this paper will be an aid towards helping us all understand the nature of domestic abuse and those who perpetrate or encourage it.George Rolph. London 2004.The abusers -- Actors in disguise.First and foremost abusers are actors. It makes no difference what gender the shameful personality is, their primary skill is to emulate convention behaviour in order to disguise their own condition.I have spoken to many victims of abuse who say that the person they met and fell in jockey with gradually changed into a monster. This is often one of the most confusing and distressing aspects of abuse from the victims point of view. It is also a situation that the abuser will apply with varying degrees of vicious skill . While it is impossible to be specific on these subjects in every case, careful observation and research have uncovered current general consistencies I want to discuss here. The question is what is going on in the abusers mind that causes them to suddenly, or gradually, become abusive to their new partner?It appears that the abusive personality has learned, by observation and by mimicry of those around them, how to give every appearance of normality and stability for often quite extended periods of time. This federal agency that they are able to convince new partners that they are really charming, wonderful people who should be trusted and are worthy of love and care. This act is simplified to maintain in certain social situations and where the abuser has minimal contact with others in an average day. For example, in a work situation where he/she will be in contact with others for a maximum of eight hours per day. Another social situation may be one of casual friendships made in pubs and clubs. Under these conditions the actor (abuser) need only be convincing as a normal person for a minimum amount of time. This is why many friends of the abuser find it hard to believe that the person they think they know could be capable of such barbarity within a long call relationship. In the case of female abusers, this difficulty is compounded by social and political myths that see females only as victi... ...Men and boys are subjected to massive amounts of disfavor in everything from education provision medical cancer research (breast versus testicular for example) housing provision Divorce the right to bring up their children alone tremendously insulting articles newspaper stories and books job security issues as a result of so-called positive discrimination discriminatory advertising on the television hatred speech political discrimination legal rights and censorship of the male point of view in the media. If men complain about this they are ridiculed and call ed whiners sometimes by other so-called men in the media but, most often, by radical feminist media spokesmen. This prejudice has led to an explosion of single mothers and the most confused and shamed generation of children our country has ever known. Will someone please tell me the benefits of this utopian radical feminist, left wing view of modern society? * For a great cautionary tale of statistics and their manipulation go to this page on the Web http//www.ifeminists.net/introduction/editorials/2004/0324.htmlCopyright George Rolph. April 2004Founder of No More Silence.Contact grolph()no-more-silence.org

Eat, Drink and Be Merry Essay -- Eating Disorders Bulimia Essays

Eat, Drink and Be MerryThis essay involves a very personal subject in my life sentence and in the life of person I hold very near and dear to my heart. A few years ago one of my closest friends whom I had known for most of my life told me under a cloud of tears, embarrassment, fear, and hope that she thought she had bulimia. I was the only one she had the courage to tell, and she felt that she had to tell someone because she had lost all control over her own actions, feelings, and thoughts. She felt that she couldnt stop even if she wanted to. She never thought that she actually had a problem, entirely one day she was at the library and she sat down at a desk that had a few books on bulimia there. She started to look through the books and found a quiz to determine if you had bulimia. She was bored and she took the quiz expecting that it would say she didnt have bulimia, but after she finished taking the quiz she had answered yes to every perplexity except the very first one. He r entire world came crashing down around her, and with each word that she read she became even more panicky and scared. Eventually she came to me, hoping that I could somehow help her and give her the support she needed. I did everything I could to help her. It took up a lot of my time and there were many sleepless nights that I had to go through helping her calm down from her anxiety attacks and uncontrollable urges, but it was all worth it and I would have done more if I could. I believe she has made a tremendous amount of progress and will one day make a full recovery. Bulimia is a very debilitating disease both mentally and physically and people should be aware of its existence because one day one of your close friends may come up to you with something im... ... condition such as bulimia is difficult and often frustrating. The best piece of advice that I ever offered my friend was the idea that there is always hope. No matter who you are or what your problems may be, there is always hope. Every person in the world has a close aggroup of friends or family that loves them. There is always hope, but the only problem is that you have to have the strength to believe in yourself and open up your eyes and command what a wonderful life you really have. No one should take anything in their life for granted because life is always unpredictable and it could always circumvent worse. I will never forget the lessons I have learned in life and I hope that everyone will work to do the same. . Sources Cited home(a) Eating Disorders Association website www.NationalEatingDisorders.orgNational Mental Health Association website www.NMHA.org.

Eat, Drink and Be Merry Essay -- Eating Disorders Bulimia Essays

Eat, Drink and Be MerryThis essay involves a very personal subject in my life and in the life of someone I hold very near and dear to my heart. A few years ago one of my closest friends whom I had known for most of my life told me at a lower place a cloud of tears, embarrassment, fear, and hope that she thought she had bulimia. I was the only one she had the courage to tell, and she felt that she had to tell someone because she had lost all control everywhere her own actions, feelings, and thoughts. She felt that she couldnt stop even if she wanted to. She never thought that she actually had a problem, plainly one day she was at the library and she sat down at a desk that had a few books on bulimia there. She started to look through the books and found a quiz to determine if you had bulimia. She was worldly and she took the quiz expecting that it would say she didnt have bulimia, but after she finished taking the quiz she had answered yes to every question except the very first one. Her integral world came crashing down around her, and with each word that she read she became even more panicky and sc ared. Eventually she came to me, hoping that I could somehow help her and give her the countenance she needed. I did everything I could to help her. It took up a lot of my time and there were many sleepless nights that I had to go through helping her brace down from her anxiety attacks and uncontrollable urges, but it was all worth it and I would have done more if I could. I believe she has made a tremendous amount of progress and will one day make a full recovery. Bulimia is a very debilitating disease two mentally and physically and people should be aware of its existence because one day one of your close friends may come up to you with something im... ... condition much(prenominal) as bulimia is difficult and often frustrating. The best piece of advice that I ever offered my friend was the idea that there is always hope. No matter who you are or what y our problems may be, there is always hope. Every person in the world has a close group of friends or family that loves them. There is always hope, but the only problem is that you have to have the strength to believe in yourself and open up your eyes and see what a wonderful life you real have. No one should take anything in their life for granted because life is always unpredictable and it could always get worse. I will never kibosh the lessons I have learned in life and I hope that everyone will work to do the same. . Sources Cited National Eating Disorders Association website www.NationalEatingDisorders.orgNational kind Health Association website www.NMHA.org.

Habeas Corpus: The Ultimate Writ of Liberty Essay

In time of contend, many quick and unpopular decisions are inevitable. The decisions the chairman has to make must be in the best interest of the country, and of the world. Although war is unpopular with many the great unwashed, it is unavoidable in certain circumstances. During wartime, many American deal want known enemy belligerents to have their adjusts upheld while being secureed. Unfortunately, this is non always feasible. One has to understand that the taking of the liberty of a handful of people to save the lives of thousands, or even millions of people is an unavoidable act. When a citizen of a orthogonal country, or a citizen of America, who has turned to act of terrorism, goes to war with America, the rights given to American citizens by the character should be denied. Wartime is never pleasant and it has the potential to causes the destruction of billions of dollars worth of property. However, the loss of life is much more devastating than the loss of property. During war, there are lawful enemy combatants captured by the opposing force and held for information or as bargaining tools. These lawful enemy combatants are known are prisoners of war (POW). If the enemy combatant whom is captured is not entitled to prisoner of war status because he or she does not meet the definition of a lawful combatant as established by the Third geneva Convention, the prisoner is known as an unlawful enemy combatant (EC). In 2001, when President George W. Bush say war on terrorism, the war was not against a country but against a particular group. Under the rules of the Third Geneva Convention, terrorists captured during the war on terrorism do not fit the criteria to be labeled a POW. at that placefore, these combatants are considered unlawful enemy combatants not bound by the protection of the Third Geneva Convention. Since the war on terror started in 2011, there have been a number of lawsuits filed againstthe American Government claiming the detainees at Guantanamo Bay were having their rights to Habeas Corpus violated.A judicial writ of Habeas Corpus instructs a government, police, or anyone who is detaining an individual from his or her liberty, to immediately bring the accused before the court so the legality of the detention may be examined (A brief history of habeas corpus, 2005). However, President Bush declared the detainees as unlawful enemy combatants, thusly denying their right to Habeas Corpus. In the United States Constitution under article One, Section 9, clause 2, it reads, The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be fend offed, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion, the public safety may require it. (Transcript of Constitution of the United States, 1787). The fundamental right given to detainees by the United States Constitution, also known as Writ of Habeas Corpus, is nothing new to the world. The origins of Habeas Corpus can be dated back to British common law (Schultz, 2011). The Habeas Cor pus Act was passed by British Parliament in 1679 and is said to have origins of Anglo-Saxon filiation dating back to the middle ages (A brief history of habeas corpus, 2005). According to Sir William Blackstone, the stolon use of Habeas Corpus can be dated back to 1305. However, there were some other Writs with the same influence being used in the twelfth century, which precedes the Magna Carta in 1215 (A brief history of habeas corpus, 2005). Habeas Corpus was first established in the United States by statute in the Judiciary Act of 1789. This lawful Writ applied only to detainees in custody by officials of the Executive Branch of the federal official government, and not to those held by state governments.However, Article One, Section 9, clause 2 does not give the right to detainees to exercise their right to the Writ of Habeas Corpus rather it instructs intercourse against suspending a persons right unless it is in a case of rebellion, invasion, or public safety. Therefore, in America, if a person is being detained and they do not feel the detention is legal, the detainee has the right to file a Writ of Habeas Corpus. There have been only two instances when the President found it necessary to suspend the Habeas Corpus Act in light of civil rights (Robinson, 2011). In the early days of the United States Civil War, President Abraham capital of Nebraska suspend Writs of Habeas Corpus on April 27, 1861. President Lincoln felt it was necessary to suspend Habeas Corpus along the railroad line between Philadelphia and Washington. Eventually, inthe fall of 1862, President Lincoln suspended Habeas Corpus nationwide (Robinson, 2011). In recent history, President George W. Bush suspended Writs of Habeas Corpus for the enemy combatants held at Guantanamo Bay by signing into law the armed forces Commissions Act of 2006. Both Presidents came under fire for their decisions. However, Lincolns was taking the right of Habeas Corpus away from American citizens while Bush took the right away from non-American citizens or citizens who were in rebellion against the United States. One of the biggest arguments is whether enemy combatants have the right to file a Writ of Habeas Corpus in a federal court.Although Habeas Corpus is a fundamental right given to the American people in the Constitution, the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 brought new theories to the forefront. The Bush Administrations choice to detain enemy combatants at Guantanamo Bay without trial tested the latitude and assurance of this constitutional right. The Bush Administration established long ago their view that foreign terrorists are not entitled to American basic rights (Justice and Gitmo The high courts decision to weigh habeas corpus for detainees is a step toward restoring trampled freedoms, 2007). The Supreme motor inn heard the case Boumediene v. Bush and made a ruling on this case on June 12, 2008. Boumediene v. Bush was a Writ of Habeas Corpus filed in a civilian co urt of the United States on behalf of Lakhdar Boumediene. Boumediene was a naturalized citizen of Bosnia and Herzegovina being held as an enemy combatant by the United States at Guantanamo Bay. When the ruling came squander from the Supreme motor lodge, it was a five to four with the majority holding the detainees at Guantanamo Bay did have the right to file Writs of Habeas Corpus under the United States Constitution.There were three factors taken into consideration when determining the final decision the citizenship and status, along with the adequacy of the process that status was determined, the sites where apprehension and detention took place, and the obstacles in resolving the detainees right to the Writ (Boumediene v. Bush, 2008). The Supreme Court ruled the United States, by virtue of its jurisdiction and control over Guantanamo Bay, the country maintains de facto sovereignty over the territory, while Cuba maintained ultimate sovereignty over the territory. Therefore, the aliens detained at Guantanamo Bay were enemy combatants and were entitled to the Writ of Habeas Corpus (Boumediene v. Bush, 2008). This ruling reversed the lower courts decision, which verbalize that constitutional rights do not extend to the detainees at Guantanamo Bay. Associate Justice Kennedy wrote the opinion of the court, with Justices Stevens, Souter, Ginsburg, and Breyer joining. Justice Souter also filed a concurring opinion with Justice Ginsburg, and Breyer joining. However, of import Justice Roberts filed a dissenting opinion with Scalia, Thomas, and Alito joining. Justice Scalia also filed a dissenting opinion with Roberts, Thomas and Alito joining. In Chief Justice Roberts dissenting, he states the Boumediene v. Bush case should have not even made it to the Supreme Court for a ruling on Habeas Corpus until the lower court first decided if the detainees had a legal right to file in a United States Court (Boumediene v. Bush, 2008). In a time of war, the president is giv en an consuming amount of latitude in making decisions. One enormous decision that has to be made is the taking of liberty from an individual. With the understanding that thousands to millions of lives could be saved by taking the liberty of a handful of people, it is, at times, an unavoidable act. Constitutional rights should become voided when an act of terror is unleashed on United States soil by all a foreign citizen or a citizen of America. Being able to commit a terrorist act and then hide under the protection of the civil liberties of some other country is nothing more than an act of a coward.ReferencesA brief history of Habeas Corpus. (2005, March 09). Retrieved November 04, 2012, from BBC News http//news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/4329839.stm Boumediene v. Bush, No. 061195 (Supreme Court of the United States June 12, 2008). Justice and Gitmo The high courts decision to weigh Habeas Corpus for detainees is a step toward restoring trampled freedoms. (2007, July 08). L os Angeles Times, p. M.2. Retrieved from http//search.proquest.com/ doctorview/422272051?accountid=32521 on November 05, 2012 Robinson, K. (2011, June 26). Historians wont convict Lincoln for suspension of Habeas Corpus. McClatchy Tribune Business News. Retrieved from http//search.proquest.com/docview/873651368?accountid=32521 Schultz, D. (2011, July). Habeas Corpus after 9/11 confronting Americas new global detention system. Choice, 48(11), pp. 2190-2191. Retrieved November 05, 2012 from http//search.proquest.com/docview/877038974?accountid=32521Transcript of Constitution of the United States. (1787). Retrieved from Our Documents http//www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=9&page=transcript

Labour Reforms in Brazil and Chile (a Comparative Study)

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY COURSE COMPARATIVE INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS (MIR 709) TOPIC hollow REFORMS IN brazil AND CHILE (A COMPARATIVE STUDY) A PAPER SUBMITTED TO THE DEPT OF SOCIOLOGY BY GROUP 4 Adepoju Janet Oluwatosin167455 Ayangbemi Olusola Temitope166905 Dagunduro Adebukola Olufunke167457 Ogunsemoyin Olubusayo B. 81014 LECTURER IN CHARGE PROF. ONYEONORU P. I. OCTOBER, 2012 INTRODUCTION Labour truths is defined as the balance of power among government, employers, actors, and unions.The redrafting of a dry lands dig up laws typic onlyy reflects a shift in the power relations and may carry unfavourable consequences for a former beneficiaries. As the Colliers induct it, Labour law is a highly visible and concrete policy statement around which policy-making battles argon fought, won, and lost, and around which semi semipolitical support is attracted, granted, and withheld lug law thus provides a valuable point of reference for analyzing the larger political context (Collier and Collier 1979, 971). The reform of national campaign laws is angiotensin converting enzyme of the almost widely applyed recent policy changes in the world.Since the aboriginal 1990s, Brazil as n primaeval as chile stand changed their get the picture laws. Labour reforms view as intimately provoked massive protests, including general strikes. It eject be beneathstood that the changes in moil law occurring on a global scale argon themselves a response to the pressure of globalization. In most nations of the world, labour legislation was originally made to reflect government-employer- doer relationships embedded in protected national economies. scarcely in recent years, trade liberalization and greater global competitiveness have created vernal challenges for employers and actors.Pressures for legal and institutional change have naturally followed. This weigh is all almost comparative insights into labour reform processes at the end of the twent ieth century of two Latin American countries, Brazil and cayenne. Despite resembling initial prescriptions for change in the direction of greater flexibleness, the moments of labour reforms differed in the two countries. In the 1990s, mode reckon flexibility reforms were implemented in Brazil duration in Chile, changes in labour law was extensive.THE LATIN AMERICAN CONTEXT The region followed a common import substituting industrialization (ISI) model in the post-war period. This knowledge st sitegy reshaped the Latin American economies, societies and institutions. While traditional interest groups linked to the primary sectors reduced their political influence, new brotherly groups with interests in the local anaesthetic anaesthetic industries gained social and political strength. later on almost time, this inward-oriented development outline began to show clear signs of exhaustion.The performance of Latin American countries was not good enough compared with the southea st Asian countries that conveyed to adopt an almost opposite sparing model. The political support of the ISI model was gradually eroding in Latin America when the debt crisis unleashed in 1982 and the in any case-ran of early policies implemented by some countries to deal with it played an meaning(a) role in reshaping policy views in the region. Latin America of course is not homogeneous, exclusively there are some geomorphological characteristics common to most countries in the region that had a bearing on the reform process.The regions competitive advantages are biased in favour of natural resources, and primary commodities explain a large share of exports minerals and oil in Chile, Venezuela and Peru, agriculture in Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay even in more industrialized Brazil and Mexico primary products are still relevant. This feature impinges on the regions political economy via the so-called natural resource curse. The distribution of income and as sics in Latin America is highly unequal compared to other regions in the world.As the 2006 receiptsman Development Report of the World Bank suggests, income inequality of this magnitude is quite likely a signal of unequal opportunities (rather than of different choices) World Bank (2005). Because of the structural lack of equity, many Latin Americans did not have the chance to take advantage of the opportunities open by reform hence many opportunities at the individual level were lost. Besides, groups that were marginalized and segregated did not support reform and often clock opposed it actively, fearing that a more competitive environment would do them more harm than good.In several of the countries, the so-called structural reforms came run in hand with efforts at macrostinting stabilization. There had been a long list of stabilization attempts before this period, but the macroeconomic stabilization programs that accompanied the structural reforms were usually deeper and lasted more tha n previous ones. The perception of greater deepness of these stabilization efforts was related to the simultaneous carrying out of other components of the reform package.Also, there have been important contagion effects across countries, that is, learning from the interpretation of the (successful and unsuccessful) experiences of other countries in the region. Having referred to many common factors, it is also important to stress that Latin American countries are quite different in many dimensions. Country size is obviously one of the dimensions in which the region is not homogeneous a dimension that became in wear outicular relevant for the fate of the inward oriented ISI model (think some the size of the domestic mart in Brazil as compared for instance with Chile).Economic and social development show significant variation across countries as well. The historical starting points in terms of social and economic structure, as well as in the details of past policies, were also dif ferent in different countries when pro-market reforms began. Social indicators as literacy ratios, life sentence expectancy and the like also show oftentimes variation. plain when most countries adopted a version of the ISI model in the post-war period, the progress they made in that direction varied considerably in terms, for instance, of the degree of industrialization they reached.This was partly dictated by the size of the domestic market and partly by policy options and political conditions. In spite of some common institutional heritage from the colonial era, political and institutional history also shows significant variation across countries in Latin America. Most countries in the region experient periods of dictatorship in the twentieth century, but while some dog-tired most of the century under those conditions, others did it for relatively rook periods. The quality of institutions and the incidence of rot also varies, Kaufmann, D. , A. Kraay and M. Mastruzzi (2003) .The different starting points and idiosyncratic characteristics influenced the fate of the pro-market reform. BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Brazil The history of Brazil starts with Indigenous Peoples of the Americas, who arrived thousands of years ago by crossing the Bering land bridge into Alaska and then moving south. The first European to explore Brazil was Pedro Alvares Cabral on April 22, 1500 under the sponsorship of Portugal. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Brazil was a colony of Portugal. On September 7, 1822, the country declared its independence from Portugal and became a constitutional monarchy, the Empire of Brazil.A forces coup in 1889 established a republican government. The country has seen a dictatorship (19301934 and 19371945) and a period of military rule (19641985). Brazil returned to democracy in 1985, subsequentlywards more than two decades of uninterrupted military governments. The first democratic government unsuccessfully tried to stabilize the economy and made little progress with reform, but since 1990, when Collor de Mello arrived to the presidency, the in series(p) democratic governments carried on a series of market-oriented reforms. It was argued that democratization facilitated the introduction of market oriented reforms in Brazil.While the military stayed in government, the protective mantle of national security and key-sectors protection became a measure speech, al flairs blocking a deeper integration into the world economy. This ideological view was present not plainly at the top of the military regime but also inside the mid-level military officers who were commonly appointed to prominent positions in economic ministries and state enterprises. In the nineties, under democratic rule, a new song of internationally-minded top civil servants re go underd these officers.Reform in Brazil followed a pragmatic way, meaning that it was gradual, piecemeal, and loosely coordinated. Fragmentation of the political system prevent ed any group from gaining dominance and coerce a negotiated style, leading to gradualism. So, most policies took time, were negotiated, and had to go through multiple veto points. The informal institution of rather fluid ties among state elites and between them and business facilitated consensus create around reform policies, but they had to be negotiated. In this manner, the policy outcomes were unlikely to be extreme.The actual social and economic outcomes have not been too spectacular, and some discontent against the reforms has breaded. Yet, the arrival to office in 2003 of a left-wing party, the PT, has not generated any reversal, suggesting that pragmatism is not likely to be displaced soon in Brazilian economic policy making. Chile The territory of Chile has been populated since at least 12,000 ago. By the 16th century, Spanish conquistadors began to subdue and colonize the region of present-day(prenominal) Chile, and the territory became a colony from 1540 to 1818, when i t gained independence from Spain.The countrys economic development was successively marked by the export of first agricultural produce, then saltpetre and ulterior copper. The wealth of raw materials led to an economic upturn, but also led to dependency, and even wars with neighbouring states. The country was governed during most of its first 150 years of independent life by different forms of restricted government, where the electorate was carefully vetted and controlled by an elite.Failure to address the economic and social disparities and increasing political awareness of the less-affluent population, as well as confirming intervention and economic computer memorying to the important political groups by both the KGB and the CIA, as part of the Cold War, led to a political polarization under Socialist President Salvador Allende which in turn resulted in the 11 September 1973 coup and the military dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet, whose 17- year regime was responsible f or numerous human by remuneratess violations and deep market-oriented economic reforms.In 1990, Chile made a peaceful transition to democracy. With ups and downs, Chile followed a basically inward-looking-state-centred development strategy from 1930 to 1973. It was not really different from the experience of other Latin American countries, save probably for the state-controlled period between 1971 and 1973. This period end up with a everlasting(a) socio-economic and political crisis that paved the road for a military coup that inaugurated a dictatorship that would last until the late eighties. The military government pushed a far reach pro-market reform agendum.This experience is usually regarded as a leading case of market-friendly reforms, not only for the adoption of a shock therapy, but also for doing it well before most other countries in the region. Beginning in late 1973, several structural reforms were implemented, including the liberalization of most prices, interest rates and earnings forceful reductions in tariffs and the elimination of non-tariff barriers to trade the strengthening of fiscal and monetary policies the privatization of more than 500 firms the reform of the pension program and the adoption of new policies of competition and regulation.In the early eighties, Chile, like other developing countries, underwent a deep economic and financial crisis. There was some reversal of reforms during this period, but the military government resumed the liberalizing reforms soon after it. Chile returned to democracy in 1990. One of the most notable aspects of the Chilean process is that after the return to democracy in 1990, the centre-left coalition that has governed the country since, did not revert the market reform process.There were several peculiar factors leading the military dictatorship to follow the suggestions of a group of foreign-trained economists towards market liberalization (against the nationalistic tendencies of part of the military). Some possible sources of opposition (such as unions or left leaning parties) were silenced by the dictatorship.Business sectors were relatively grateful since firms were devolved to private owners after nationalization by the previous socialist government of Allende, so that they did not oppose trade liberalization. The way the transition to democracy was instrumented in the late eighties was key for the integrating of pro-market reforms in Chile. Consolidation was by no means granted by that time, for the parties that formed the winning coalition (named the Concertacion) in the 1989 elections had opposed many of the reforms.Also, formerly pent-up interest groups could take advantage of the new political environment to voice their demands, pushing the new government towards a less neutral and more flaccid fiscal policy. According to Foguel, Miguel, Indermit Gill, Rosane Mendonca and Ricardo Paes de Barros, (1998), several factors contributed to the consolidation of the pro-market reform in the transition period * the good performance of the economy in 1985-1989 * the concurrent flag of socialist regimes in Europe the economic failure of democratic transition in Argentina (that contributed to convince several left15 wing politicians of the risks of heterodox policies) * the intellectual renovation and internationalization of the circles around the Concertacion, which lead to a revaluation of continuity and * several institutional enclaves in the new constitution, increasing the veto power and political relevance of the right, which forced democratic presidents to follow consensual strategies on economic matters. Chile seems to be in a path of institutional and policy consolidation.The democratic governments have maintained the core of the economic reforms undertaken during the dictatorship, while steadily (albeit slowly, consort to some views) advancing on the social and democratic front. These steps have taken place according to a style of polic ymaking that is much more consensual and institutionalized than that of other Latin American countries. (IADB, 2005). EVOLUTION OF LABOUR REFORM IN BRAZIL The Consolidated Labour Code The main body of the Brazilian labour legislation was introduced in the 1940s, and consolidated into the Consolidacao das Leis do Trabalho (CLT) in 1943.The CLT is a large, often overlapping, set of rules which determines individual and corporate rights and duties of the thespians, unions and firms. The law determines that all workers must have a booklet where all individual labour contracts and its changes over time are registered by the employer. By definition, a formal worker has a booklet signed by his employer (carteira assinada) Besides the obligation to sign the booklet, the law stipulates a set of borderline conditions any employment relationship must follow.The most important rules are maximum hours of work per week maximum extra-time working hours minimum salary for extra-time work minimu m wage pre-paid annual vacations special protection clauses for women and children the dismissal of pregnant women is forbidden the right of paid vacation before and after childbirth, for the beat special work conditions for night shifts one calendar month pre-notification of firing and protection against unjustified dismissals. There have been changes in the legislation since the creation of the CLT. In peculiar(a) In 1962, introduction of a one monthly wage annual inducement (thirteenth salary).In 1963, introduction of a family allowance. In 1965, introduction of a wage adjustment law which determined the minimum rate of wage adjustments of all workers in the economy. In 1966, creation of a severance fund (Fundo de Garantia por rate de Servico FGTS) in place of a clause forbidding dismissal of workers with more than 10 years of tenure. In 1986, creation of an unemployment damages program which today covers about 25% of the countrys labour force. In 1988, approval of a new C onstitution with the introduction of new labour clauses. Severance Rules and Unemployment CompensationUntil 1965, to fire a worker without a proper justification the employer had to net one months wage for each year of work in the firm. The compensation was cipher on the basis of the higher wage received during the work contract. It was a duty of the employer to prove the dismissal was justified, and the conditions for justified dismissals were clearly defined in the law. After 10 years in the same enterprise, dismissals were forbidden by law, except if properly justified. In 1966, this entire system of protection against non-justified dismissals was changed.A severance fund was created, called the Fundo de Garantia por footstep de Servico (FGTS). When hiring a worker, the firm had to open a banking account for the worker and deposit 8% of the value of the wage in the account. Today, Caixa Economica Federal, a government saving and loans institution, collects the FGTS charge and invests it primarily in urban housing projects giving workers a legally take in charged minimum deposit rate. When dismissed without a just cause (sem justa causa) the worker could draw this money and received a monetary compensation corresponding to a fine of 10% over the total amount of the fund.Like many other Latin American countries (see Loayza, 1998), dismissal for economic reasons is not considered a just cause. In 1988 the fine for unjust dismissal was increased to 40% of the workers FGTS account balance. Besides this fine, the employer has to notify the worker one month before he will be fired. This is the aviso previo law, or previous notification of firing. During the month the worker has received the previous notification of firing, he/she is allowed, according to the law, to take two hours a day to look for a new job.This implies a minimum constitute of 25% of the workers monthly wage. In fact the terms is usually higher since firms end up paying the notification fe e to the worker and dismissing him immediately. Thus, the total cost of dismissal is 25% to 100% of the monthly wage plus 40% of the FGTS. The cost depends on the telephone number of months the worker has worked for the firm. Since 1986, when fired, besides the advance notice, access to the FGTS (and the 40% fine for unfair dismissal), the worker also has the right to an unemployment compensation benefits.The unemployment compensation program offers partial coverage for up to four months of unemployment (extended to five months after 1996). To call on eligible to receive the benefit, the worker must abut the following criteria * to have been dismissed without a just cause * to have had a formal labour contract during the last six months or to have been legally self-employed for at least 15 months * to be unemployed for at least 7 days * must not receive any other pension * must not have any other type of income sufficient to guarantee his own subsistence and that of his family.T he value of the benefit cannot be lower than the value of the minimum wage, is adjusted monthly for inflation, and is related to the average wage received by the worker in the last three months in the previous job. Wage Laws An important change in the CLT was the introduction of the Wage limiting Law in 1965. before this date, wage adjustments were fixed through bodied negotiate between workers and employers unions, at the settlement dates (data base), and through individual negotiations between one worker and his/her employer.Only the minimum wage was determined directly by the President of the Republic, although most of the time it incorporated automatically the prescriptions given by indexation clauses imbedded in the Law. The Wage Adjustment Law gave the government the right to determine the minimum rate of adjustment of all honorarium in the formal sector of the economy. The first wage law stipulated that nominal wages should be adjusted once a year, at the settlement date of each occupation, following a formula which took the past and pass judgment future rate of inflation and the growth rate in GDP per capita as the base for the adjustments.The specific formula and the adjustment period changed many times over the years, as the rate of inflation increased. In 1995, one year after the introduction of the Real Plan, the Wage Law was abolished. Today, upward adjustment of wages is negotiated between employers and employees. But downward adjustment of wages is for all practical decides prohibited by the Constitution attempts to do so make employers open to lawsuits, which are generally breakd in favor of the worker.This was irrelevant during a time of high inflation, but now quite possibly adds to the rigidity of the labour market. The Reforms of 1988 The main changes of labour legislation introduced in the Constitution of 1988 can be summarized as follows * The maximum number of hours of work per week was reduced from 48 to 44 hours and the minimum allowance for extra-time hours increased from 20% to 50% of the workers wages. * For continuous work shifts the maximum daily journey was reduced from eight to six hours. * A vacation bonus of one-third of the workers wages was created. The childbirth leave for mothers was increased to 120 days and a five days childbirth leave for the father was introduced. * Firing be for unjustified dismissals increased from 10% of the FGTS balance to 40%. This is the list of the minimum individual rights for private sector and state enterprise workers. Working conditions can be improved through negotiations between the individual worker and the firm, or through collective bargaining. The Constitution of 1988 clearly mandated higher nonwage benefits and made dismissals costlier for employers. Payroll Taxes and Mandatory Benefits after 1988The CLT and the 1988 Constitution stipulate a very comprehensive set of minimum standards any individual contract must follow. The rules do not provide much s pace for negotiations between employers and workers. The result is a rigid set of minimum rules, which reduces the flexibility of the labour contract in face of changes in the economic environment. In addition to the costs imposed by this inflexibility, there are more direct and obvious non-wage costs due to payroll taxes and mandatory benefits required by the law. The cost of labour can be decomposed into four parts The basic contractual wage. * Mandatory benefits which include the annual one month bonus (terceiro salario), the region to the FGTS, vacations and other benefits. * Contributions to the official training system (SENAI and SENAC), to finance an institution which assist small enterprises (SEBRAE) and a contribution paid by firms to finance an workers assistance service (SESI or SESC). * Contribution to the federal social security system (INSS) and to fund educational services salario educacao) and an on-the-job accident insurance fee mandatory for all firms and proporti onal to the payroll.In addition to these contributions ground on payroll costs, employers are also charged levies on revenues to pay for additional INSS-related obligations (Cofins), to be raised in 1999 from 1 to 2 percent and PIS/PASEP, the contributions towards the Fundo de Aparelho de Trabalhadores (FAT) which fund unemployment compensation, job search assistance and active labour programs such as training and microenterprise support schemes. These labour related levies can add up to between 2 and 3 percent of employer revenues. EVOLUTION OF LABOUR REFORM IN CHILE Labour Code (1931-1965)Initially, Chiles labour market regulations is characterized with tripartite system of collective bargaining and conflict resolution. 1931 labour code focus ones on conflict resolution. While the legislation favoured collective bargaining at the firm level, and this form of negotiations was dominant, the mechanisms of conflict resolution projected negotiations beyond the enterprise. With time, sector-wide negotiations spread throughout the economy. Dismissal without expression of cause with a months notice. Severance payment of a months wage per year of tenure for white collar workers.The main component of payroll taxes are social security contributions. Chile started a Social Security System in 1924, building from a set of privately established pensions systems that covered specific groups of workers or sectors of economic activity. These programs finance retirement, invalidity and family survivor benefits, a public health care system, the payment of family allowances, and an unemployment subsidy. In addition, there was a 1 % contribution to fund public training programs. The Chile labour market reform has come a long way and in each stage undergone a couple of(prenominal) reforms to meet the demand of the changing market conditions.After the deadly coup of 1973, several labour unions, labour institutions were dissolved. In October, 1973, the Chilean government introduc ed wage adjustments, which were linked to inflation rate. Chile labour market reform is significant because of the following reasons * The country underwent a switch over from an economy, which was regulated to an economy, which is unregulated as well as open. This was brought about by the execution of economic reforms pertaining to labour markets and pension system in the country. * The labour market in Chile has been over the years very unpredictable.Labour market in Chile during the seventies During the middle seventies, the government in Chile launched the first structural reforms in Chile. Which in turn increased the unemployment rate. However, Chile go through a healthy growth in the economy towards the end of seventies. Despite the speedy growth in economy, the labour market refused to recover from the high rate of unemployment. Reverse to what it was during the seventies, the labour market in the eighties recuperated very fast even though the crisis was much more severe th an the previous one. Even rate of growth in wages recovered comparatively fast.During this period, rate of unemployment reached 25%. As part of Chile labour market reform, the proportional adjustments pertaining to lower wages was made more than the higher wages. The method of indexation that existed between 1973 to 1979 had many drawbacks. In order to overcome these drawbacks, Labour Plan of 1979, was implemented, which tell that adjustment of wages would be made at or above inflation rate. At regular intervals, as part of Chile labour market reform, the government carried on with the make out of increasing wages but not in accordance with the rising rate of inflation.However, during the 1990s, there was increase in wages higher than what was declared for the purpose of readjustments. The Employment Security Law, states that if there is no valid cause for dismissing an employee, the worker could be re engaged in the job as per orders from a labour court. However, in the year 1978 , this law was substituted by a method of severance payment. Chile labour market reform, Decree Law 2,200 stated that employers had the right to make changes in the contract between the employers as well as the employees and that they could fire an employee without giving any explanation to the employees.A severance payment, which was minimum was also introduced. Decree Law 2,200 as well as Chile labour market reform of 1979, led to the introduction of new techniques to supervise the activities of the labour unions. This was stated in Decree Law, 2,756. Collective bargaining was stated in Decree Law 2,758. Decree Law 2,756 and Decree Law 2,758 are collectively referred to as Labour Plan. Decree Law 2,756 governs matters related to labour union. Whereas, Decree law, 2,758 governs the various norms adopted in the event of a strike.Labour reforms that took place in Chile is summarized below Phase I (1966-73) Increased polarization of the labour movement Generalized use of wage indexati on. Dismissals require expression of just cause, or severance payment of a months wage per year of tenure. In spite of very high nominal contribution rates, by 1970 the public sector spent 20. 5 percent of its budget to cover the deficits in the health and pensions systems along with its own contributions. Phase II (1974-79) Economic Liberalization with a highly intervened labour market.Decree Law 670 of October 1974 substituted the earlier legislation that defined the tripartite commissions, giving them a consultative character. They were understood to be a transition mechanism, while a new policy towards the labour market was developed, and while union activities were banned.. thrift-wide wage adjustments imposed by decree. Dismissal without expression of cause reinstated in 1978 for all new hires. Employers pay a severance of a months wage per year of tenure to all dismissed workers, unless there is just cause, which includes economic cause. A number of partial changes brought d own contributions from a 60 percent at their peak in 1974, to the order of 33 percent in 1980. Rates varied according to the specific plan at which an employee was affiliated, but all the plans were guaranteed by the state. For example, in 1976, the 1% contribution earmarked to fund training program was eliminated. Phase III (1980-1990) man and wife affiliation becomes voluntary. Decentralized collective bargaining. Labour negotiations opened to market forces. Strikes without job guarantees after sixty days.No intervention of the government in the affairs of unions or the collective bargaining process, except for a wage floor guaranteed by law. The wage floor was eliminated in 1982, and as a by-product, the necessary conditions to replace striking workers were eroded. It also marked the era of minimum wage setting. Starting in 1981, dismissals of any worker, new or previously hired, can take place without expression of cause, and as long as severance is paid. Severance payments are open to negotiations. In the absence of an explicit agreement the minimum severance would be a month wages per year of tenure with a 5 months ceiling.A 1984 reform established that the minimum severance agreed by the parties could not be less than the severance established by law. Furthermore, economic cause for dismissal is not just cause anymore. In 1980, a reform lowered social security contributions to just above 20 percent (10 % towards retirement, 7% towards health and about 3% towards disability). New entrants to the labour force would contribute to a new old-age program based on a mandated individualized savings plan, to be managed by private administrators (AFPs).Old contributors could to opt out of the traditional pay-as-you-go system. In the case of health care contributions, both old contributors and new entrants were given the choice to opt out of the public system (FONASA) and use the 7 percent towards a health care insurance policy provided by an authorized private h ealth insurer (ISAPRES). A basic pension, the unemployment insurance, and the family allowances programs would be fully financed by the central government budget. Phase IV (1991 till date) This is the Consolidation of Labour Reforms.The new law eliminated the sixty days period for the legal strike, which allowed employers to dismiss striking workers without severance. The new law also reinstated stricter conditions for workers replacements in case of strike. Labour negotiations can take place at the sector level if both workers and employers agree to it. Dismissals require an expression of cause. Severance of one month wages per year of tenure applies to dismissals with economic cause. Severance would be paid with a 20% surcharge if the employer cannot prove an alleged economic cause. No severance obligation in case of dismissals with just cause. Dismissal ceiling on severance payment raised to 11 month wages. THEMES ON LABOUR REFORM DISCUSSION The thematic elements under which la bour reforms that occurred in the two Latin American countries under study will be discussed will focus on the labours strategic interest in labour law and its ability to pursue those interest during specific rounds of reform. These interests are derived from the legal and institutional framework of labour relations, which are often inherited from earlier period of legal and political incorporation of labour.Secondly is the willingness of government to see reform through. Government resolve is shaped by the pressure for the reform that it faces from international actors or domestic constituencies. Another thematic approach is the transition context for the reform. The nature of transitions as well as their timing affects the political environment for labour reform. Democratic transitions tend to favour rights-based reforms and strengthen unions, while market-oriented economic transitions tend to favour labour flexibility and weaken unions.The Initiation of the Reforms The crisis of the ISI model in the sixties and seventies left Latin American leaders searching for new paradigms. In this context, the pro-market reform agenda began to gain strength, initially pushed by groups of professional economists trained in the US, and reinforced later in the eighties and nineties by the IFIs. The experience of Thatcher in the UK and the fall of communism also contributed to create an environment favourable to pro-market reform. In some countries, these new ideas got through to the ruling army forces.Chile was the leading case, after a short socialist experience that ended with a military coup. Other countries only began the reform process in the early nineties, after suffering severe macroeconomic instability in the eighties. By that time, Chile had already become an example of a successful reformer that many wanted to reproduce. The debt crisis that blew up in the early eighties gave place to a decade characterized by severe macroeconomic instability in most countries i n the region. There were several attempts at eterodox macroeconomic stabilization that failed completely. Brazil is probably one of the most distinctive cases. The pro-market structural reforms were out of the agenda in those years in most Latin American countries. Even in Chile, the debt crisis caused a partial and temporary reversion of the pro-market labour reform. It was only after these policies ended up in hyperinflation that the idea of implementing more Jewish-Orthodox stabilization programs bundled with structural pro-market reforms made its way through in the region in the early nineties.In the 1980s and 1990s, several democratic political leaders who gained elections proposing leftwing platforms ended up adopting the market-friendly package. Some of these presidents were concerned by little more than their political survival in the midst of impending or ongoing macroeconomic crises, and were sensibly much open to anything that might deliver some short-term economic resu lts that could lead to favourable political results for them. They ended up convinced that some sort of the market-friendly package was the most sensible option they had.Implementation Recent literature on reform emphasizes the key role of appropriate implementation and enforcement capacity to determine the outcome of reform (Stein and Tommasi 2005 Rius and van de Walle, 2004 Fanelli and Popov, 2003). It is considered that while the best send offed policy packages may generate bad outcomes if implementation fails, policies that are not first-best in terms of design may still render acceptable results if they are well implemented (IADB, 2005).The quality of public policies in terms of enforcement and implementation varies considerably across the Latin American countries. Stein and Tommasi (2005) classified the Latin American countries in several key dimensions of their economic policies, one of them existence the capacity to enforce and effectively implement the policies. Of the t wo Latin American countries considered in this paper, Chile appears as the one with quite high enforcement and implementation capacity Brazil has intermediate capability with implementation quality.The enforcement and implementation capacities are in turn related to the quality and independence of the bureaucracy, the quality and independence of the judiciary, and the capabilities of the Congress. Stein and Tommasi (2005) show that the index of enforcement and implementation capacity is positively correlated to indexes of congress capability, juridical independence and civil service development across these two Latin American countries. An independent and highly qualified judicial system is probably the most obvious enforcer of the laws.Delegating the implementation of policies to a professional and independent bureaucracy is also a good enforcement device. Chumacero et al (2005) claim that the Chilean military government that initially pushed the pro-market reform replaced the exi sting bureaucracy with a strong technocracy that contributed to improve the implementation and enforcement capacities of the State. Brazil followed a different highway in that reformers did not replace the existing bureaucracy, Castelar Pinheiro, A. , R. Bonelli and B. Ross Schneider (2004).Nevertheless, Brazil already had a relatively good bureaucracy before the pro-market reform era. This allowed the government to delegate the implementation of trade liberalization and privatization to autonomous agencies, which according to Castelar Pinheiro et al (2004), was key for the advance of these reforms. Stakeholders The labour movement was more independent from the State and from the parties that ended up being reformist. In Brazil and Chile, trade unions would not favour pro-market reform, but they were forbidden in Chile when the reform began and relatively weak in Brazil (Castelar Pinheiro et al).Labour movements in Brazil retained some degree of organizational strength, militarisat ion capacity and political influence, and were therefore able to fight off some of the reforms that were aimed at expanding labour market flexibility. They fought hard against the loss of core organizational resources as well as legal provisions regarding union structure and collective bargaining. In Chile, economic labour reforms occurred broadly under the dictatorship, along with labour code changes, the prospect for expanding labour rights under the democratic transition were limited.The issue of labour reform lies at the core of this disjuncture as it straddles major fault lines innate to the Chilean neoliberal project. On the one hand, cheap and flexible labour with few rights to collective action has formed a central axis of Chiles economic model since Pinochets ruthless undermining of organised labour in the mid-1970s. This oppressiveness was given a tangible legal form in the 1980 labour code that denied even the most basic of rights to the working population. Labour movem ents in Chile was pressured to moderate its demands during transition.Furthermore, labour ties to parties in power under the concertacion further constrained the movements ability to assert demands for reforms in the first-round democratic government. In summary, in Brazil political stability is a contextual premium, a potential threat to that stability came from the labour movement. By contrast, in Chile, the prime concern was economic stability. Unfortunately, labour mobilization was constrained by political compromises and organizational factors. The economic elites were the ones to be appeased.Capitalist interests, institutionally represented by the Confederacion de Produccion y Commercio (CPC), have strongly opposed any real changes to the labour code. They argue that, by impinging on labour market flexibility, reforms to the labour code would undermine the foundations of domestic accumulation to the detriment of all Chileans Inclusiveness of the political Process behind the R eforms In Brazil, President Fernando Henrique Cardoso negotiated the pro-market reform along several years, and there was no reversal, even after the opposition took office.Reform was very gradual and partial, mostly due to the effective inclusion of opposition parties and social groups in the negotiation of reform. This participation slowed down reform, but it can be argued that it also contributed to render the economic policy more predictable. political participation might not only contribute to reform because it reduces resistance, but also because it promotes a more open hostelry in which special interests find themselves more constrained. Chile is a case in which the bulk of the reform process took place under the Pinochet dictatorship.Yet, the decision of the successive incoming democratic governments of sustaining the main aspects of the market-oriented reforms, together with the consensual and institutionalized policymaking style with which modifications and adjustments ha ve proceeded, has tended to generate an increasingly virtuous circle between reforms, democratic participation, and transparency. reason REMARKS This paper attempted to extract some lessons from the reform experiences of the selected Latin American countries, on the basis of underlying country studies.That exercise led, in its central section, to reflections on several key themes in the political economy of reform, reflections which themselves had some elements of concluding remarks. For that reason, this final section is relatively brief, and instead of recapitulating everything said before, it just draws from a few points in order to take a (succinct) prospective look. The early evaluations of the impact of market oriented reforms were far more optimistic than later ones.The present political dynamics of these countries suggests that the fate of reforms is correlated with the outcomes of reform, and that both in turn are correlated with more slow-moving (not to say, permanent) fu ndamental local conditions, in particular with local institutional conditions. The ranking of both countries in terms of reform outcomes, and reform continuity and sustainability is almost identical to a ranking of State Capabilities developed by Stein and Tommasi at the Inter-American Development Bank, reflected in Stein and Tommasi (2005) and IADB (2005).Perhaps the main lesson we extract from the experience at this point, is that in democratic settings it is not a good strategy to impose reforms from above or by surprise. Consensus building operating through the social and political specificities of the country is not only a better way to achieve the desired reforms, but even a process for identifying and implementing policies and reforms more suitable for each country. The capacity of countries to achieve such processes seems conditioned by their political institutions and policymaking capabilities.REFERENCE Aguilera-Alfred, N. , D. Borda and D. Richards (2004) Understanding Ref orm. The Predatory State and Economic Reform An Examination of Paraguays Political Economic Transition, Global Development Network, Mimeo. Castelar Pinheiro, A. , R. Bonelli and B. Ross Schneider (2004) Pragmatism and the Political Economy of commercialize Reform in Brazil, Global Development Network, Mimeo. Chumacero, R. , R. Fuentes, R. Luders and J. Vial (2005) Understanding Chilean Reforms, Global Development Network, Mimeo. Collier, Ruth Berins, and David Collier. 1979.Inducements versus Constraints Disaggregating Corporatism. American Political lore Review 73, 4 967-86 Fanelli, J. M. and V. Popov (2003). On the Philosophical, Political and Methodological Underpinnings of Reform. Global Development Network. Inter-American Development Bank (2005) The Politics of Policies. Economic and Social Progress in Latin America and the Caribbean 2006 Report. Kaufmann, D. , A. Kraay and M. Mastruzzi (2003) Governance Matters III Governance Indicators for 1996-2002. World Bank Policy Res earch Working Paper 3106, Washington DC The World Bank.Rius, A. and N. van de Walle (2003) Political Insitutions and Economic Policy Reform, Thematic Paper for the Global Research Project on Understanding Reform, Global Development Network. Schneider, B. R. (2004) Organizing Interests and Coalitions in the Politics of Market Reform in Latin America World Politics 56 (April), 456-79. Stein, E. and M. Tommasi (2005) Political Institutions, Policymaking Processes, and Policy Outcomes. A Comparison of Latin American Cases, Inter-American Development Bank, Mimeo. http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Military_government_of_Chile_

Comparing For Profit and Non for Profit Colleges Essay

Colleges and university have slowly become one of the stepping stones into the working piece today. People go to colleges for higher education with the intention of earning degrees in which they asshole use in their respective fields. Some example degrees that people pursue ar Medical, Law, Business, accountancy, and Science Degrees. Through the years the idea of college was that it was optional and it was a door for better life and job. However in the modern times, it become a necessity. It completely started when the colleges once single- gender institutions tar bear specific bookmans in their respective demographics.Today, the college market has now been divided into two major categories Not-for-Profit Colleges and For-Profit colleges. Not-For-Profit Colleges be institutions that argon amuseed in serving the students of necessity by providing necessary education to the student. The Not-For-Profit organization are tax exempt and have a board of trustees that makes clos ings. For-Profit Colleges are run like a business in which their goal is to generate income for their owners and shareholders. There are no board of trustees at For-Profit College and the owner and shareholders control the decision on which is best for the institution.Although the objective for both Not-for-Profit Colleges and For-Profit College is to provide their students an education in which they plenty use for their future, both institution have great differences in which their organizations are run. Although the primary objective For-Profit colleges is to provide an education, they are merely a business in which their goal is to earn a acquire. Like any business, the For-Profit Colleges can be setup as a sole proprietorship, partnership, or even a subsidiary of a larger company.The For-Profit College can excessively be setup as a corporation that have stocks traded on the stock markets. They will try to bring earnings and a return on investment for all their shareholders an d investors. They can have great flexibility because at the end of the day, the goal for the For-Profit College is to make money and only that. The instructors that are hired at For-Profit Colleges usually have a very different approach to their teaching compared to Non-For-Profit Colleges. Usually they are merely there to carry out the lesson patterns in which was designed by the institution.Majority of the lesson stick out given to each student is standard which means the instructors do not have the liberty to create their own curriculum or lesson plans. This is also imputable to the purpose of the education given is to assist the student in getting specific jobs with specific job functions. The courses at the For-Profit college is to help the students get better jobs in the market while the courses at Not-For-Profit College intend to allow the student learn and grow within their respective fields.Students that enter For-Profit colleges already have a plan in terms of type of jo bs they would like to pursue and they enroll in the necessary courses while both(prenominal) students at Not-For-Profit College have no idea which flight that they would like to pursue. Not-For-Profit college help you learn and gain the knowledge in the field that youre interested in while For-Profit colleges prepare you for the specific job that you extremity to do. The admission process for For-Profit schools are not as selective as the one in Not-For-Profit College.There isnt much prior evaluation of the student since their main goal is to make a profit. They tend to be more flexible in terms of their requirements and appeal to students of all ages and races. Modern day classes can be taken online and at more convenient times much(prenominal) as nights and weekends to accommodate students that work full time. Online has also been the new trend because of the humble overhead costs for the For-Profit institution. For-Profit institutions tend to not have a campus like the Not-F or-Profit colleges do. For-Profit colleges classes is usually at their own building or leased space.There isnt any services such as on-campus food or housing that is available to the students at For-Profit institutions. The college provides students with the education that they need for their desire jobs rather than a college flummox that a Not-For-Profit college can provide. For Profit institutions conduct their accounting the same as any regular business would do. Their main goal is to make a profit just like all businesses would do. For-Profit institutions must comply with the Federal Accounting Standard Board. The disciplines are recorded as revenue while the expenses include leases, staff, and guardianship expenses.For-Profit colleges calculate system must include tools to forecast budgets, manage variance and generate financial reports. The budget forecast is designed to estimate revenue and expenses to its income center, administrative cost structure, and its academic sch edule. The income center budget includes enrollments, revenue, and expenses by academic period. Administrative expenses include administrative costs per student and personnel pay ranges. The budget should also include financial report to show if the institution is profitable. Statements such as cash flow statements, net income, and balance sheet should all be included.The budget must also be flexible enough in case that their projections arent accurate. They should be easily accessible so that managers can routinely scrap if their performance is above, below, or even on target. To determine if the institution is on track with its budget and strategic plans, they would circular their six categories in their budget to get a better picture of the institutions performance. They are new students, enrollment, cost performance, revenue, net income, and cash flow. This way they would also be able to measure the skill of their institution also.The goal for Not-For-Profit Colleges is to pr ovide students with higher education and help them advance in a particular field. Not-For-Profit Colleges are traditional college such as community colleges, state universities, and liberal arts colleges. These institutions gain funding to provide their services from the government subsidy, tuition fees, and donations. All the income that are received is strictly utilise for institution purposes. Some examples are professors, staff, maintenance, utilities, or even computers that the school needs and student needs.All the money is given back to the institution in some way. The professors hired at a Not-For-Profit College design their own courses and create their own course curriculum and lesson plan. They can provide the education in their courses with their own somebody styles and lesson plans. The professors are under the guidance of the Board of Trustees, which is composed of different representatives that make decisions for the college. Not-For-Profit colleges are mainly to prov ide education for the student who are enrolled in their institution.The classes are usually on a campus in which the student spends a majority of their time at. The board of Trustees focuses on improving their campus for the student. The Board of Trustees is constantly making decisions from an academic, campus, and efficiency perspective in order to provide the best possible service for their students. Not-For-Profit Colleges select their students through a vigorous and selective process. Students usually express interest in attending the college and then the college decides if the student would be a good fit for the college.After being accepted, the student would be able to earn a scholarship to help with the room and board that the college charges. Not-For-Profit Colleges are selective of the students since they strive to serve students who would fit the reputation of the institution. This selective process allow college to focus on the needs of the students that are a good match for the college. From an accounting perspective Not-For-Profit colleges follow the rules of Governmental Accounting Standards Board who is responsible for Generally Accepted Accounting Principles used by the United States.The Governmental Accounting Standards Board issues statements that deal with the accounting principles and financial reporting rules of government and other Not-For-Profit organizations. Like all Not-For-Profit organization, these college move over without expecting commensurate returns. Their main purpose is to provide education to the students that enroll in their school. Most of their income for these colleges come from the tuitions and fees they receive from their student. Other income comes from donation and government subsidies.When a Not-For-Profit College receives tuition payments and fees in full from students the college is supposed to record it at a gross nitty-gritty, as any revenue would be recorded. If a student meets certain measuring stick that al lows them to attend a publicly funded not-for-profit institution, tuition whitethorn be waived in the form of a tuition waiver. Tuition Waivers are reported as a contra-revenue account reducing the revenue account. If the college has any debts, they are recorded just as businesses record them as the debts are recorded with institutional support expenses.Students may pay for college with scholarships which are essentially amounts contributed for the education of a selected individual. Scholarships are given for a range of reasons including high academic standing, membership in certain societies, or awards. However there are two main sources of scholarships which are an outside donor or the scholarship is awarded by the college itself. If the scholarship is from an outside donor the not-for-profit college solely collects the amount receivable from the donor.If the scholarship is awarded by the college itself the accountant reduces the colleges accounts receivable. This reduction in th e accounts receivable is recorded as an expense to education and general student aid. Certain expenses of a not-for-profit college are unexclusive net assets classified as instruction expense, research expense, public service expense, academic support, student services, institutional support, carrying into action and maintenance of plant and student aid. Not-For-Profit Colleges cannot operate on tuition fees alone as all the money is immediately put into the school.Fortunately as a Not-For-Profit organization these colleges may receive governmental subsidies as support revenue. There are two types of government subsidies classified as unrestricted and restricted. unrestricted subsidies are intended for the college to use in general operations. The Board of Trustees also has the power to decide whether a subsidy is unrestricted. Restricted subsidies can be split into both temporarily or permanently. These subsidies often are given for a certain purpose such as an expansion or spe cial project.The restrictions on these subsidies quote to the amount that can be spent and when it can be spent. Sometimes the government may also provide students with grants, which are similar to scholarships in the reason that they are provided to help students reach their financial needs for school. Government grants can both be state or federal and come from government programs such as Pell or the Federal Supplemental Education Opportunity Grant. Similar to scholarships the college may either distribute the cash to the proper students or receive the amount that is to be distributed.If the college decides to receive the grant then it is recorded as a liability in the Grant Funds Held for Students account. Not-For-Profit colleges usually also have an talent fund which is used to help finance the operating expenses of the organization. Aside from the general endowment the institution may also have restricted endowments intended for specific purposes such as professorships, schol arships or fellowships. For cash received from permanent endowments it is recorded as a contribution and the income is restricted to student aid.Any income received delinquent to an endowment is temporarily restricted and the cash is meant to be spent on student aid. The other services that a Not-For-Profit College provides are the Auxiliary function. The Auxiliary Services are the services and amenities of the campus. Examples of such services are residence halls, food services and the college athletic teams. These services are classified under unrestricted revenues and expenses. The total of the accounts from the auxiliary services are reported on the Statement of Activities for the College and subsidiary records are also kept.The Statement of Activities for the Not-For-Profit College will usually list the Revenues have with Total Net Assets Released from Restrictions for Operations to get the Total Revenues and Reclassifications. The next section is usually the Expenses sectio n followed by any Net Change in Unrestricted Assets, Temporarily Restricted Assets and finally Permanently Restricted Net Assets. The Statement of Activities is then followed by a summary on the Change in Assets for the departed year. Even though the main purpose of both For-Profit and Not-For-Profit is the same, the way that they function arent necessary the same.The accounting standards and rules that they follow both are very different. alike the rules that both colleges follow are extremely different. Both colleges have their strength and weaknesses in their way that they serve their students. The student should chose the type of college they want depending on what their needs are. If the student is looking to advance their education they should be looking for a traditional Not-For-Profit College. If they are trying to land a job that has technical skills which are required, then the For-Profit College is a better option.

Social and Economic Effects of the Global Flow of Silver

China, Spain, and Europe affected the globose flow of silver from the sixteenth century to the early eighteenth century, socially and economically. China affected the global flow of silver socially and economically. (Doc. s 1,3,5,7) In Document 1, the author believes that a frugal man with only one bar of silver so-and-so pay for his wedding and still give way something left over, but an extravagant man can have thousands and still not have enough. The author feels this counseling because of his bias towards limiting wedding expenses as a county official.From this once could infer, that county officials during this time period did not care much for large, extravagant weddings because they thought them to be a waste of valuable silver. An additional document such as a farmers journal containing his views on wedding expenses would help one remediate understand a common persons views on the issue. In Document 3, the author is writing a report to the Ming emperor about the grueling grain prices and scarcity of silver coins.Low grain production led to tillers of land receiving lower returns on the their labors, and less land being put into cultivation, thereby disrupting the economic flow of silver for labor or goods. This is important because it shows the dependence Chinas providence put on silver. Document 5 describes the transmit in Chinas economy. In the past, customers would trade livestock, food, or other goods in exchange for dyed clothes. In 1610, customers receive a bill which must be paid with silver. The author believes that silver has more value than the goods traded in the past, which is described in the authors essay, The Changing Times. The author feels this way because of the economy transformation from a barter economy to a money-based economy. In Document 7, the author believes that the 1626 ban of foreign trade should be repealed. The author feels this way because Spain is a foreign trade country that has large amounts of silver and pays elaborately for pottery works and other goods that come from China. From this one could infer that the author might have been a merchant who wants the ban lifted to acquire wealth in silver from Spain.

Marketing and Overhead Allocation Rate

Bridgeton Assignment 1. The overhead allocation rate used in the 1987 example course of instruction strategy study at the Automotive Component & Fabrication Plant (ACF) was 435% of direct labor dollar cost. Calculate the overhead allocation rate development the 1987 model year compute. Why do you get different numbers? 2. Calculate the overhead allocation rate for each of the model years 1988 by dint of 1990. Are the changes since 1987 in overhead allocation rates significant? Why have these changes occurred? 3. Consider two products in the same product line output 1 Product 2Expected Selling Price $62 $54 Standard Material Cost 16 27 Standard Labor Cost 6 3 Calculate the expected gross margins as a percentage of selling price on each product based on the 1988 and 1990 model year budgets, assuming selling price and material and labor cost do not change from standard. 4. Are the product costs reported by the cost system appropriate for use in the strategic analysis? 5. Assume th at the selling prices, volumes, and material costs for the 1991 model year impart not change for fuel tanks and doors produced by the ACF of Bridgeton Industries.Assume also that if manifolds are produced, their selling prices, volume, and material costs will not change either. a. Prepare an estimated model year budget for the ACF in 1991 (1) if no additional products are dropped. (2) if the manifold product line is dropped. Explain any additional assumptions you make in preparing your estimated mode year budgets. b. What will be the overhead allocation rate under the two scenarios? 6. Would you outsource manifolds from the ACF in 1991? Why, or why not? What more information would you want in the first place reaching a final decision?

My Beliefs and Values

My Beliefs, Values, and clinical Gestalt with Individuals and Systems Paper Ariele Henderson University of Phoenix CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY Icertify thatthe attachedpaper,which wasproduced forthe class identified above, is my original work and has non previously been submitted by me or by anyone else for any class. I further decl be that I maintain cited all sources from which I usedlanguage, ideas and information,whether quotedverbatim or paraphrased, and that any and all assistance of any kind, which I received while producing this paper, has been acknowledged in the References section.This paper includes notrademarked material, logos, or images from the Internet, which I do not have written permission to include. I further agree that my name typedon the line below is intended to have, and shall have the same hardness as my handwritten signature. Studentssignature (name typed here is equivalent to a signature) _________Ariele Henderson__________________ ___ My Beliefs, Values, and Clinical Gestalt with Individuals and Systems Paper When it comes to being a human overhauls p quality there are many privationed attri besideses.A human service workers beliefs, value and clinical gestalt play very important role in how they treat and assist clients. Human service workers strive to put their clients at ease, and to help them meet their involve. Through the text exercises and classrooms discussions I have learn that there are many things that I drive to work on in determine to ensure that I result be an effective and procreative social worker. In the exercise Clients I might take care hard to accept I learned that it is not for me to agree or disagree with their beliefs, scarce it is for me to try to see things through their eyes in order to assist them properly.The goal of every human service professional is to help those in need. To do these human service professionals moldiness not push their beliefs or values onto their clients. I will come acros s clients that come from different backgrounds, environments, and who different beliefs and values. no(prenominal) the less they are human and should be treated as such. One must keep an open mind when working with clients. When doing so clients will tincture respected, confident, and comfortable. Human service professionals must learn, and grow from past experiences. A Human service professionals repose should be calm, exhibit reliability and confidence.Clinical repose is an area that I need to work on. I need to be able to ensure that I can remain calm, regardless of what is occurring well-nigh me, or in my personal life. Large societal and system contexts, lead to immediate contexts. It is always good to know where a problem comes from, in order to find a solution that will be beneficial. Dillon & Murphy (2003) states The clinicians anchored and relaxed presence acts as an island of calm and allows the client to stay self-focused without being distracted by the clinicians needs or anxieties. This repose is central to supportive presence.It provides a clear but unobtrusive holding environment for the work and the relationship. Clients come to know that they can look at on the clinician to remain centered and steady regardless of events and developments. Even in the face of the unexpected, clinicians try to remain as calm and reliable as accomplishable (p. 1). My personal and professional assumptions about clinical helping and their relationships to my beliefs, values, past experiences, familiar and cultural background are that in clinical helping one must see value for the lives, health, and well being of others.In clinical helping one can learn from past experiences, from an psyches cultural background, and mayhap by even changing ones values after learning and forming a connection with clients. Before this course I was under the low that my beliefs, and values have no place in the human services field, I thought that leaving them out would be best f or my clients, I have learned otherwise. I have come to the realization that ones values and beliefs are what make them an excellent human services worker. Human service professionals have a genuine concern for other people.When seeking employment in the human services field, future employees look for agencies that share their beliefs and values. I would find it very difficult to work with staff members who do not try to the best of their ability to help clients due to differences in values, beliefs, backgrounds, or preconceived ideas. The national Association of tender Workers (2009) states that an ethical principal for social workers is that societal workers treat each person in a caring and respectful fashion, mindful of individual differences and cultural and ethnic diversity.Social workers promote clients socially responsible self-determination. Social workers seek to enhance clients capacity and opportunity to change and to address their own needs. Social workers are cogni zant of their dual responsibility to clients and to the broader society. They seek to resolve conflicts between clients interests and the broader societys interests in a socially responsible manner uniform with the values, ethical principles, and ethical standards of the profession (p. 1).Insights that I have gained about the strengths, I have are that my strengths in listening, and open my mind to the views of my clients are needed strengths, and will be beneficial to me and my clients. There are some areas in which I have determined that I need to work on further. I need to be more aware of the gestures that I am making, and my facial expressions, so that my clients will feel comfortable, and place their trust in me. I also need to find a way to use my values and beliefs to assist clients, but not to form my opinions, or influence decisions.Dillon & Murphy (2003) acknowledges that Individual values are cherished beliefs that develop in the context of family and sociocultural infl uences. Clinicians may value anything from personal autonomy to personal hygiene and can find themselves dismayed or offended by clients who do not share their value systems. As clinicians, we need to be aware of our values and how they influence our responses to clients in ways that may leave them feeling unaccepted.Clinicians must be dedicated to being nonjudgmentalunconditionally accepting people for who they are without necessarily accepting all their behaviors. The clinicians nonjudgmental stance leaves clients free to confide openly and honestly without fear of rejection, shaming, or reprisal. As we work with clients and are exposed to diverse situations and beliefs, we often find that our values are challenged and changed. A side benefit of clinical work is that our lenses are inevitably widened so that we both see and appreciate more of the world beyond our own.We ourselves stretch and grow through exposure to differences (p. 1). Human service professionals must be able to p ut their feelings aside in order to serve the client. It is our ethical responsibility to not let our beliefs and values get in the way of our decision making. It is up to the social workers to ensure that their clients feel comfortable, respected, and that they have confidence in them as a change agent. I believe that I have a lot to learn, and a lot of areas that I need to work on, but with practice and awareness I will go far.Reference Dillon & Murphy (2003) Interviewing in Action Relationship, Process, and Change. Retrieved December 14, 2009, from e-books chapter 4 University of Phoenix National Association of Social Workers (2009) Code of Ethics of the National Association of Social Workers. Retrieved December 14, 2009, from www. socialworkers. org/pubs/Code/code. asp Rankin (n. d. ) Motivational Interviewing in Human Services. Retrieved December 14, 2009, from http//www. media. ncrtm. org/presentations/ARCA_50/ppt/rankin. ppt

Stereotype and Prejudice Marjorie

Title Prejudice Prejudice Marjorie W. Davis PSY/285 February 28, 2012 Michael Ford Abstract Our discussion is about how does society confirm negative attitudes? How does ones social identity contribute to diagonal? How do emotions encourage prejudicial attitudes? What cognitive processes influence prejudice? Our text has explained competition competition is an important source of frustration that can fuel prejudice. When twain groups compete for jobs, housing, or social prestige, one groups goal fulfillment can become the other groups frustration. PrejudiceSociety confirms prejudice by what you possess and how much money you have. If you atomic number 18 not in a certain bracket such as (high class or middle class), you are considered poor. Prejudice helps justify the economic and social superiority of those who have wealth and power. Of course they will not give a chance at reference work to buy a house, car, or start a business. Society, also confirm prejudice by the way you dr ess or the car you drive. Society confirms prejudicial attitude by focusing on personal individuality and Independence, as opposed to becoming a team with neighbors and friends.I am so glad that matinee idol looks at the heart and man looks at the outer appearance. Ones social identity contributes base on a realization of limited environmental control. The more you guess that you can impact your environment or social status, the less roll social identity plays Emotions really affect prejudicial attitudes because most of the time throng make decisions based on their emotions. Emotions of fear and sadness or joy and gladness, which can cause you to project feelings in a hurtful way, rather than in a helpful manner Cognitive process influence prejudice through stereotyping, which cause prejudice.This can be a result of the normal ship canal in which we simplify and organize the world. Stereotypes are the social scripts we have in our heads about others and the roles we believe they should play in our socially constructed world. It is important to have the dread of the basic concepts of prejudice and racism, and how to lessen their destructive effect (Rosado,1995-2012). Reference Rosado, C. (1995-2012). Critical Multicultral Pavilion Research Room. Retrieved from http//www. edchange,org/multicultral/papers/caleb/racism. html